Suchergebnisse

The Austro-Hungarian diplomatic services followed the course of the election campaigns for the State Duma in the Kingdom of Poland closely. This is entirely understandable. The Sejm was a novelty in the political life of the Habsburg Monarchy's northern neighbour. Its functioning could have had far-reaching and difficult to predict consequences for the politics of the Romanov Empire. Reports by Austro-Hungarian diplomats accurately reflected the mood of Polish public opinion and the position of individual groups. They drew attention to the deterioration of ethnic relations in the Kingdom of Poland, both between Poles and Jews and between Poles and Russians. They accurately portrayed the dilemmas of Polish society, its powerlessness and frustration, including disappointment with the State Duma. The parliamentarisation of the political system in Russia and the departure from the self-rule did not improve the position of the Polish people in the tsarist state. The results of the elections to the State Duma confirmed the dominance of national democracy in the political life of the Kingdom of Poland. The Austro-Hungarian diplomats regarded this grouping as the true representation of public sentiment and the dominant force on the Polish political scene. They were not entirely impartial in their reports. Their correspondence shows that they were sympathetic to Polish conservative circles and clearly disliked socialist groups.

During World War I, much of Galicia was occupied and incorporated by the Russia. In the spring of 1915, the armies of the Central Powers liberated most of Galicia. A brutal military regime was introduced in these areas, who looked for traitors and collaborators. The large scale of repression contributed to the undermining of loyalty that the Polish inhabitants of Galicia had towards the Habsburg monarchy. According to the author, this situation allows the thesis to be put forward that between 1914–1918 one can speak of a double occupation of this province. On the example of Artur Aulich, the president of the court in Stanisławów, who described what – in the opinion of the Austrian authorities – behavior from the period of Russian occupation was considered worthy of condemnation.

War refugees of the World War I in paintings and drawings from the Western Russian Provinces
During the World War I millions of civilians all around Europe and the Near East were often forced to leave their homes unprepared and in desperate hope of finding safety and refuge in distant lands. From the very beginning of the war, refugees became the topic and subject for both propagandists and artists alike. For the purposes of this article, a selected number of examples of drawings and paintings, presenting perspectives of Latvian, Polish and Jewish subjects of the tsar, have been chosen. In the iconography, war refugees are generally presented as innocent and helpless victims of the conflict, and as a proof of the brutality and barbarity of the unfolding hostilities. The article also explores the way artists honed in on the depictions of crying women; troubled and helpless old men; small children snuggling up to their mothers and people contending with hunger, cold, fear, disease, uncertainty of the future and longing for lost homes as well as separated family members. Very often, the typical backgrounds for such scenes are ruins and burning buildings. The artists who depicted the war refugees' fate did not always share such dramatic experiences personally. However, they clealy acknowledged the fact that it played a huge role in forming the identity of the nations they belonged to.

The First World War imposed a severe stigma on the Lemko people, the Ruthenian mountaineers residing on the northern mountainside of the Carpathians. Military operations, political repressions, malnutrition, and epidemics of contagious diseases caused severe damages and losses in the population and materials. In the late 1914 and early 1915, the front-line was set through the Lemko Land. The area's eastern part was occupied for several months by the Russians. The occupational authorities planned to annex the area after the war, as they recognised the Lemkos as part of the Russian nation. On the other hand, the Lemko people were generally treated by the Austro-Hungarian authorities with suspicion, as allegedly favouring Russia. They were accused of sabotage and collaboration with the occupiers. Many a Lemko was executed, often without any proof of guilt whatsoever. Some 2,000 were sent to an internment camp in Thalerhof, not far from Graz. The war facilitated the split among the Lemkos into those who considered themselves members of a Ukrainian nation and those who recognised themselves as a separate ethnic group.

The First World War imposed a severe stigma on the Lemko people, the Ruthenian mountaineers residing on the northern mountainside of the Carpathians. Military operations, political repressions, malnutrition, and epidemics of contagious diseases caused severe damages and losses in the population and materials. In the late 1914 and early 1915, the front-line was set through the Lemko Land. The area's eastern part was occupied for several months by the Russians. The occupational authorities planned to annex the area after the war, as they recognised the Lemkos as part of the Russian nation. On the other hand, the Lemko people were generally treated by the Austro-Hungarian authorities with suspicion, as allegedly favouring Russia. They were accused of sabotage and collaboration with the occupiers. Many a Lemko was executed, often without any proof of guilt whatsoever. Some 2,000 were sent to an internment camp in Thalerhof, not far from Graz. The war facilitated the split among the Lemkos into those who considered themselves members of a Ukrainian nation and those who recognised themselves as a separate ethnic group.

Niniejszy materiał jest udostępniony na licencji Creative Commons – Uznanie autorstwa - Użycie niekomercyjne - Bez utworów zależnych 3.0 DE. Pełne postanowienia tej licencji są dostępne pod: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/legalcode ; This paper presents the process of building an independent Polish state during the First World War, which, from the Polish perspective, was the most important result of this conflict. The article focuses mainly on the political and military developments in the Polish territories between 1914 and 1921. These include the internationalization of the Polish question, Polish political and military activity, occupation regimes in the Polish territories, the collapse of foreign authorities in Poland, the establishment of Polish political institutions, and Polish social and cultural life. ; Agnieszka Uziębło

The First World War imposed a severe stigma on the Lemko people, the Ruthenian mountaineers residing on the northern mountainside of the Carpathians. Military operations, political repressions, malnutrition, and epidemics of contagious diseases caused severe damages and losses in the population and materials. In the late 1914 and early 1915, the front-line was set through the Lemko Land. The area's eastern part was occupied for several months by the Russians. The occupational authorities planned to annex the area after the war, as they recognised the Lemkos as part of the Russian nation. On the other hand, the Lemko people were generally treated by the Austro-Hungarian authorities with suspicion, as allegedly favouring Russia. They were accused of sabotage and collaboration with the occupiers. Many a Lemko was executed, often without any proof of guilt whatsoever. Some 2,000 were sent to an internment camp in Thalerhof, not far from Graz. The war facilitated the split among the Lemkos into those who considered themselves members of a Ukrainian nation and those who recognised themselves as a separate ethnic group. ; p. 7-36 ; The First World War imposed a severe stigma on the Lemko people, the Ruthenian mountaineers residing on the northern mountainside of the Carpathians. Military operations, political repressions, malnutrition, and epidemics of contagious diseases caused severe damages and losses in the population and materials. In the late 1914 and early 1915, the front-line was set through the Lemko Land. The area's eastern part was occupied for several months by the Russians. The occupational authorities planned to annex the area after the war, as they recognised the Lemkos as part of the Russian nation. On the other hand, the Lemko people were generally treated by the Austro-Hungarian authorities with suspicion, as allegedly favouring Russia. They were accused of sabotage and collaboration with the occupiers. Many a Lemko was executed, often without any proof of guilt whatsoever. Some 2,000 were sent to an internment camp in Thalerhof, not far from Graz. The war facilitated the split among the Lemkos into those who considered themselves members of a Ukrainian nation and those who recognised themselves as a separate ethnic group. ; s. 7-36

Cover -- Titelei -- Inhalt -- Einleitung -- I »Welche sich mir entgegenstellen, zerschmettere Ich« -- 1 Die Institution der Monarchie an der Wende vom 19. zum 20. Jahrhundert -- 2 Kaiser Wilhelm II.: Befugnisse, Weltanschauung und Charakter -- II »Ich kann auch sehr unangenehm sein« -- 1 Versuch einer Verständigung. Die Polen und Wilhelm II. zu Beginn seiner Herrschaft -- 2 Die Thorner Rede und der Bruch Wilhelms II. mit den Polen 1894 -- III »Polnische Frechheit, sarmatische Anmassung« -- 1 Die Beziehungen Wilhelms II. zu den Polen in den Jahren 1895 bis 1902 -- 2 Polen in der Umgebung Wilhelms II. -- 3 Land und Sprache. Die Haltung Wilhelms II. zum Enteignungsgesetz und zu den Schulstreiks ... -- IV »Verlockung durch die Kreuzritter« -- 1 Der Besuch des Kaisers in Posen 1902 -- 2 Besuch des Kaisers in Gnesen 1905 -- 3 Die Grunwald-Feierlichkeiten und der Besuch Wilhelms II. in Posen 1910 -- 4 Besuch des Kaisers in Posen 1913 -- V »Weg mit den Millionen für die Kriegsmarine!« -- 1 Die Einstellung der Polen zu den Kaisergeburtstagen, den Familienfeierlichkeiten ... -- 2 Das Verhältnis der Polen zur »Weltpolitik« 1897 bis 1914 -- VI »Ich habe schon genug!« -- 1 Die Haltung Wilhelms II. zur Revolution der Jahre 1905-1907 im Königreich Polen -- 2 Die polnische Frage in den deutsch-habsburgischen Beziehungen der Jahre 1895 bis 1914 ... -- 3 Politische Aspekte des Verhältnisses der Polen ... -- VII »Denn Ich habe Polen geschaffen« -- Zusammenfassung und Schlussfolgerungen -- Quellen- und Literaturverzeichnis -- Ausgewählte Karikaturen -- Personenverzeichnis.